Terrorism
Terrorism (from French (18th century): terrorisme under the Terror) is used
by some people to refer to the calculated use of violence or the threat of
violence, against the civilian population, usually for the purpose of
obtaining political or religious goals. This is the definition accepted by
the FBI. It is not, however, the definition in the British Terrorism Act
2000, which defines terrorism in such a way that it can include attacks on
military personnel, or acts not usually considered violent such as shutting
down a website whose views one dislikes.
Some people think that the distinctive nature of terrorism lies in its
deliberate and specific selection of civilians as targets (as previously
noted, the British government in 2000 evidently didn't hold this view), a
choice designed to attract wide publicity and cause extreme levels of public
shock, outrage and fear. The terrorist believes these conditions will help
to bring about political or religious changes the terrorist wants.
It is critical to distinguish terrorism from irregular, revolutionary or
guerrilla warfare. These are not intrinsic forms of terrorism. However,
revolutionaries and guerrillas can become terrorists if they deliberately
and specifically select civilians as targets of violence in the pursuit of
political or religious ends.
Terrorism can be committed by governments (see state terrorism),
individuals, or non-government groups; although some consider governments
incapable of terrorism by definition (see article state terrorism and
section on state terrorism below). In the eyes of a government that might
endorse the political motives of the violent actors, such acts can also be
ignored as terrorism, and can even be referred to as acts of "freedom
fighters".
One who carries out acts of terrorism is a terrorist, though which acts
those are is the subject of intractable debate. Terrorists are not protected
by the laws of war because they cannot claim lawful combatant status.
Guerrillas are often mistaken for terrorists, and some terrorists call
themselves guerrillas. Adding to the confusion, are the numerous states,
including developed ones who routinely employ terrorist strategies, in
addition to established military practices. Asymmetric warfare, and
low-intensity warfare are military terms for tactics that can include
terrorism or guerilla warfare.
Problems with the definition
If applied to states' actions with respect to the citizens of other states,
most of 20th century warfare, from aerial bombing of cities to "scorched
Earth" policies to "ethnic cleansing" would qualify, and many states would
be "terrorist" by definition. Since no state wants to define themselves as
terrorists, the term "terrorist" itself is usually applied in military terms
to non-state actors in asymmetric warfare.
As defined by the United States Department of Defense, terrorism is a very
specific type of violence, although the term is often applied to other kinds
of violence felt to be unacceptable. Typical terrorist actions include
assassinations, kidnappings, bombings, drive-by shootings, lynchings,
hijackings, and random killing. It is a political, not military, strategy
and is generally conducted by groups not strong enough to mount open
assaults, although it is used in peace, conflict, and war. The intent of
terrorism is to induce a state of fear in an audience (not its victims) in
order to cause the audience (or its government) to alter its behavior.
As if to illustrate the over-politicized use of the term terrorist, FBI
director Louis Freeh listed Reclaim the Streets a party organiser amongst
the "Threats of Terrorism to the United States". The list also included
"extreme fringes of animal rights, environmental, anti-nuclear, and other
political and social movements" as well as the Animal Liberation Front (ALF)
and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF). Earth Liberation Front have never done
bodily harm of any type, claim only to have committed arson and "animal
liberation", and claim non-violence to all living things as an explicit part
of their doctrine. This group cannot conceivably satisfy the US Department
of Defense definition, but the FBI finds it convenient to motivate its
funding and "counter-terror" activities, gaining prestige for what would
otherwise be ordinary arson cases.
The report reads in part: "Anarchists and extreme socialist groups - many of
which, such as the Workers' World Party, Reclaim the Streets, and Carnival
Against Capitalism - have an international presence and, at times, also
represent a potential threat in the United States. For example, anarchists,
operating individually and in groups, caused much of the damage during the
1999 World Trade Organization ministerial meeting in Seattle."
The State Department also refuses to classify domestic militia groups as
terrorist groups, despite a striking similarity in causes, doctrine, and
training. This is widely believed to be due to a desire to maintain domestic
cohesion, as the government fears the destructive potential of these groups
if provoked. In the case of Irv Rubin of the JDL, the FBI took action to
infiltrate and interfere with attempts to commit terrorism against Darrell
Issa, a US Congressman, but does not consider the JDL to be a terrorist
group in the same sense as groups such as Al-Qaeda.
In the current post-9-11 context, many claim the word terrorist to be overly
politicized; being not a reference to a behaviour, but rather is an
adjective to characterize and demonize an enemy in terms that carry moral
disgust and outrage. This process of demonization of an enemy is normal in
war and serves to solidify public opinion: George W. Bush of the USA, for
example, routinely describes "the terrorists" as being "evil" and "without
conscience."
Terrorist attacks and terrorists
Significant terrorist incidents include the September 11, 2001 Terrorist
Attack as well as the Omagh bombing in Northern Ireland, and the Oklahoma
City bombing. See also terrorism against Israel.
Some famous terrorist organizations of the 20th century include the Spanish
ETA, the German Red Army Faction (also known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang),
the Irish Republican Army, Islamic Jihad, the pre-state Zionist groups Irgun
and Lehi, the Ku Klux Klan, the Palestine Liberation Organization, the
Peruvian Shining Path, al-Qaeda, the Italian Red Brigade, the Front de
Libération du Québec, the Weathermen, Black September, Puerto Rico's Los
Macheteros, and the multi-Arab group Hezbollah.
Terrorism is extremely difficult for governments to control or prevent,
especially if its practitioners are willing to risk or embrace certain death
in the process. A few governments such as Iraq, Yemen, the United States and
Libya, and the countries that supported the Taliban regime in Afghanistan
have been accused of actually promoting or protecting certain terrorist
groups.
History
Terrorism has been used (though not so named) throughout recorded history at
least as far back as ancient Greece. During the French Revolution the more
extreme period of the rule of the Committee of Public Safety received the
name of "The Terror", epitomising state terror directed primarily at the
state's own citizens: the Committee's Jacobin adherents became "Terrorists"
(with a capital "T").
Prior to the 19th century terrorists would give immunity to innocents not
involved in the conflict. For example, Russian radicals intent on the
assassination of Tsar Alexander II in the mid-19th century canceled several
actions out of concern that they might injure women, children, elderly
persons, or other innocents. Over the past two centuries, however, as states
have become increasingly bureaucratized, the death of a single individual
leader did not produce the political changes that the terrorists desired, so
they turned to more indirect methods to cause general anxiety and loss of
confidence in the government.
Today terrorism's use has increased among the alienated due to the
psychological impact it can have on the public through the extensive media
coverage that it can generate. Terrorism is often the last resort of the
desperate, and can be and has been conducted by small as well as large
organizations. Historically, groups may resort to terrorism when they
believe all other avenues, including economics, protest, public appeal, and
organized warfare, hold no hope of success (also see rioting). This suggests
that perhaps one effective way to combat terrorism is to ensure that in any
case where there is a population feeling oppressed, that at least some
avenue of gaining attention to problems is kept open, even if the population
in question is in the minority on an opinion. Other reasons to engage in
terrorism include attempts to gain or consolidate power either by instilling
fear in the population to be controlled, or by stimulating another group
into becoming a hardened foe, thereby setting up polarizing us-versus-them
dynamics (also see nationalism and fascism). A third common reason to engage
in terrorism is to demoralize and paralyze one's enemy with fear; this
sometimes works, but can also stiffen the enemy's resolve. Often, a
particular group engaged in terrorist activities can be characterised by
several of these reasons. In general, retribution against terrorists can
result in an escalating tit-for-tat; however, it is often felt that if the
consequences of engaging in terrorism are not swift and punishing, the
deterrent to other terrorist groups becomes diminished.
Terrorism relies heavily on surprise and often occurs when and where least
expected. Terrorist attacks can trigger sudden transitions into conflict or
war. It is not uncommon after a terrorist attack for a number of
unassociated groups to claim responsibility for the action; this may be
considered "free publicity" for the organization's aims or plans. Because of
its anonymous and often self-sacrificial nature, it is not uncommon for the
reasons behind the action to remain unknown for a considerable period.
International Conventions on Terrorism
There are eleven major multilateral conventions related to states'
responsibilities for combating terrorism.
In addition to these conventions, other instruments may be relevant to
particular circumstances, such as bilateral extradition treaties, the 1961
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, and the 1963 Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations. Moreover, there are now a number of important United
Nations Security Council and General Assembly Resolutions on international
terrorism, including three important Security Council resolutions dealing
with Libya's conduct in connection with the 1988 sabotage of Pan Am 103,
which includes UN Security Council Resolutions 731 (January 21, 1992); 748
(March 31, 1992) and 883 (November 11, 1993).
The following list identifies the major terrorism conventions and provides a
brief summary of some of the major terms of each instrument. In addition to
the provisions summarized below, most of these conventions provide that
parties must establish criminal jurisdiction over offenders (e.g., the
state(s) where the offense takes place, or in some cases the state of
nationality of the perpetrator or victim).
1. Convention on Offenses and Certain Other Acts Committed On Board
Aircraft (Tokyo Convention, agreed 9/63--safety of aviation):
o applies to acts affecting in-flight safety;
o authorizes the aircraft commander to impose reasonable measures,
including restraint, on any person he or she has reason to believe
has committed or is about to commit such an act, when necessary to
protect the safety of the aircraft and for related reasons;
o requires contracting states to take custody of offenders and to
return control of the aircraft to the lawful commander.
2. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (Hague
Convention, agreed 12/70--aircraft hijackings):
o makes it an offense for any person on board an aircraft in flight
[to] "unlawfully, by force or threat thereof, or any other form of
intimidation, [to] seize or exercise control of that aircraft" or
to attempt to do so;
o requires parties to the convention to make hijackings punishable
by "severe penalties;"
o requires parties that have custody of offenders to either
extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
o requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal
proceedings brought under the convention.
3. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of
Civil Aviation (Montreal Convention, agreed 9/71--applies to acts of
aviation sabotage such as bombings aboard aircraft in flight):
o makes it an offense for any person unlawfully and intentionally to
perform an act of violence against a person on board an aircraft
in flight, if that act is likely to endanger the safety of that
aircraft; to place an explosive device on an aircraft; and to
attempt such acts or be an accomplice of a person who performs or
attempts to perform such acts;
o requires parties to the convention to make offenses punishable by
"severe penalties;"
o requires parties that have custody of offenders to either
extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
o requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal
proceedings brought under the convention.
4. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against
Internationally Protected Persons (agreed 12/73--protects senior
government officials and diplomats):
o defines internationally protected person as a Head of State, a
Minister for Foreign Affairs, a representative or official of a
state or of an international organization who is entitled to
special protection from attack under international law;
o requires each party to criminalize and make punishable "by
appropriate penalties which take into account their grave nature,"
the intentional murder, kidnapping, or other attack upon the
person or liberty of an internationally protected person, a
violent attack upon the official premises, the private
accommodations, or the means of transport of such person; a threat
or attempt to commit such an attack; and an act "constituting
participation as an accomplice;"
o requires parties that have custody of offenders to either
extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
o requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal
proceedings brought under the convention.
5. Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (Nuclear
Materials Convention, agreed 10/79--combats unlawful taking and use of
nuclear material):
o criminalizes the unlawful possession, use, transfer, etc., of
nuclear material, the theft of nuclear material, and threats to
use nuclear material to cause death or serious injury to any
person or substantial property damage;
o requires parties that have custody of offenders to either
extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
o requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal
proceedings brought under the convention.
6. International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages (Hostages
Convention, agreed 12/79):
o provides that "any person who seizes or detains and threatens to
kill, to injure, or to continue to detain another person in order
to compel a third party, namely, a State, an international
intergovernmental organization, a natural or juridical person, or
a group of persons, to do or abstain from doing any act as an
explicit or implicit condition for the release of the hostage
commits the offense of taking of hostages within the meaning of
this Convention;"
o requires parties that have custody of offenders to either
extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
o requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal
proceedings brought under the convention.
7. Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports
Serving International Civil Aviation (agreed 2/88--extends and
supplements Montreal Convention):
1.
o extends the provisions of the Montreal Convention (see No. 3
above) to encompass terrorist acts at airports serving
international civil aviation.
2. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of
Maritime Navigation, (agreed 3/88--applies to terrorist activities on
ships):
o establishes a legal regime applicable to acts against
international maritime navigation that is similar to the regimes
established against international aviation;
o makes it an offense for a person unlawfully and intentionally to
seize or exercise control over a ship by force, threat, or
intimidation; to perform an act of violence against a person on
board a ship if that act is likely to endanger the safe navigation
of the ship; to place a destructive device or substance aboard a
ship; and other acts against the safety of ships;
o requires parties that have custody of offenders to either
extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
o requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal
proceedings brought under the convention.
o Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety
of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf (agreed
3/88--applies to terrorist activities on fixed offshore
platforms):
o establishes a legal regime applicable to acts against fixed
platforms on the continental shelf that is similar to the regimes
established against international aviation;
o requires parties that have custody of offenders to either
extradite the offender or submit the case for prosecution;
o requires parties to assist each other in connection with criminal
proceedings brought under the protocol.
3. Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of
Identification (agreed 3/91--provides for chemical marking to
facilitate detection of plastic explosives, e.g., to combat aircraft
sabotage). Consists of two parts: the Convention itself, and a
Technical Annex which is an integral part of the Convention.
o designed to control and limit the used of unmarked and
undetectable plastic explosives (negotiated in the aftermath of
the Pan Am 103 bombing);
o parties are obligated in their respective territories to ensure
effective control over "unmarked" plastic explosive, i.e., those
that do not contain one of the detection agents described in the
Technical Annex;
o generally speaking, each party must, among other things: take
necessary and effective measures to prohibit and prevent the
manufacture of unmarked plastic explosives; take necessary and
effective measures to prevent the movement of unmarked plastic
explosives into or out of its territory; take necessary measures
to exercise strict and effective control over possession and
transfer of unmarked explosives made or imported prior to the
entry-into-force of the convention; take necessary measures to
ensure that all stocks of such unmarked explosives not held by the
military or police are destroyed or consumed, marked, or rendered
permanently ineffective within three years; take necessary
measures to ensure that unmarked plastic explosives held by the
military or police, are destroyed or consumed, marked, or rendered
permanently ineffective within fifteen years; and, take necessary
measures to ensure the destruction, as soon as possible, of any
unmarked explosives manufactured after the date-of-entry into
force of the convention for that state.
o does not itself create new offenses that would be subject to a
prosecution or extradition regime, although all states are
required to ensure that provisions are complied within their
territories.
4. International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombing
(agreed 12/97--expands the legal framework for international
cooperation in the investigation, prosecution, and extradition of
persons who engage in terrorist bombings):
o creates a regime of universal jurisdiction over the unlawful and
intentional use of explosives and other lethal devices in, into,
or against various defined public places with intent to kill or
cause serious bodily injury, or with intent to cause extensive
destruction of the public place;
o like earlier conventions on protected persons and hostage taking,
requires parties to criminalize, under their domestic laws,
certain types of criminal offenses, and also requires parties to
extradite or submit for prosecution persons accused of committing
or aiding in the commission of such offenses.
During the negotiations on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal
Court, many states supported adding terrorism to the list of crimes over
which the court would have jurisdiction. This proposal was not adopted;
however the Statute provides for a review conference to be held seven years
after the entry into force of the Statute, which will consider (among other
things) an extension of the court's jurisdiction to include terrorism.
Types of Terrorism
Six broad categories of terrorist organizations can be identified, though
the distinctions between them are not always precise. In addition to this
classification, terrorism can also be classified by its range of operations
into domestic terrorism and international terrorism.
State Terrorism
Main article: State terrorism
The first usage of the word terrorism (terrorisme in French) was in France
during The Terror, then first usage of this word was for state terrorism.
According to Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón, "State terrorism is a political
system whose rule of recognition permits and/or imposes a clandestine,
unpredictable, and diffuse application, even regarding clearly innocent
people, of coercive means prohibited by the proclaimed judicial ordinance.
State terrorism obstructs or annuls judicial activity and transforms the
government into an active agent in the struggle for power."
Almost all the countries in Latin America have experienced periods of state
terrorism under dictatorial or military governments, pushed by the CIA
Condor Plan; it is common that the initial 3-5 years after the coup d'état
are characterized by violence, arbitrary detentions, exile, torture, and
"disappearing" people.
The population of the Soviet Union also suffered state terrorism during the
Stalin era. Millions were semi-arbitrarily arrested, forced to sign
ridiculous confessions, and executed or sent off to the Gulag labour camps.
Communist regimes in other countries also practiced state terrorism to
control the population, but to a lesser degree than the Soviet Union.
In World War II, the United Kingdom and the United States used fire-bomb
attacks on Dresden, killing tens of thousands of citizens. The US bombing of
Tokyo killed 83,000 citizens and the atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima killed
70,000 citizens and Nagasaki killed 36,000 citizens during World War II.
Some argue that these acts qualify as state terrorism, while others argue
military justification. Strategic bombing was also the practice of the other
belligerents (Blitz).
Some claim Israeli actions against the Palestinian population are an example
of state terrorism. Others disagree, claiming Israeli actions are not aimed
specifically at hurting Palestinian civilians, but are rather a part of
regular warfare, in which civilians sometimes get hurt.
State terrorism is maintained through state-founded propaganda, mainly
stating that it is for "National Security Reasons", that it's a short period
of time, that the government is in state of war against guerrilla or
terrorist groups (usually, the groups that are still loyal to the last
president), and that they are working to restore the "Constitution and the
Democracy".
The most pervasive elements of state terrorism are that detained people
usually have no right to a judicial process and many people are executed
under summary and secret trials. In virtually every case where a terrorist
group has achieved power it has been marked by a dictatorship.
States widely classed as 'terrorist' include:
* Chile under Augusto Pinochet
* Romania under Nicolae Ceaucescu
* Iraq when it was under Saddam Hussein
* Iran
* Israel
* Lebanon
* Libya
* Saudi-Arabia
* Sudan
* Syria
* Yemen
Anarchists believe that all states are founded on violence and therefore the
term 'terrorist state' is redundant. As with other uses of the term
'terrorism', the term 'state terrorism' is highly controversial. Many of the
people operating under that belief would classify the United States,
Britain, or Israel as leading terrorist states.
Nationalist Terrorism
Main article: Nationalist terrorism
Nationalist terrorists seek to form a separate state for their own group,
and try to draw attention to their fight for "national liberation."
Examples of Nationalist Terrorist Groups:
* Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA)
* Basque Fatherland and Liberty -- Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA)
* Front de Libération du Quebec -- (FLQ)
* Irish Republican Army
* Kurdistan Workers' Party -- (PKK)
* Palestine Liberation Organization -- (PLO)
Religious Terrorism
Main article: Religious terrorism
Religious terrorists use violence to further what they see as divinely
commanded purposes. (see also Religious intolerance).
Examples of Religious Terrorist Groups:
* al-Qaeda
* Hamas
* Hizballah
* Aum Shinrikyo
* Moro Islamic Liberation Front
* The Order
Left-wing Terrorism
Main article: Left-wing terrorism
Left-wing terrorists are out to destroy capitalism and replace it with a
communist or socialist regime.
Examples of Left-Wing Terrorist Groups:
* Red Army Faction, also known as Baader-Meinhof-Gang
* Japanese Red Army
* Weather Underground
* Brigade Rosse
Right-Wing Terrorism
Main article: Right-wing terrorism
Right-wing, or "neo-Fascist", terrorists seek to do away with liberal
democratic governments and create fascist states in their place. They
frequently attack immigrants and are both racist and xenophobic, often
specifically antisemitic.
Many right-wing Latin American terrorist groups during the 1980s, known as
death squads, consisted usually of members of the armed forces who acted in
an unofficial capacity to terrorize dissidents, generally with the implicit
support or protection of high ranking officials. As private groups with
overlapping memberships with the military, they were able to carry out a
terror campaign on the government's behalf while giving the government a
form of plausible deniability. The most famous victims of this campaign of
death squad terrorism in El Salvador were four American nuns in 1980, and
archbishop Oscar Romero also during that year. In a civil trail ending in
July of 2002,a Miami, Florida jury found two former Salvadoran defense
officials in the torture of three Salvadoran dissidents and ordered them to
pay $54.6 million to the plaintiffs.
In many other cases, right-wing terrorists are among the least organized;
most of them belong to various neo-Nazi groups.
Anarchist Terrorism
Main article: Anarchism and Violence
Anarchist terrorism was much more prevalent from the 1870s into the 1920s
than it is at present. Several heads of state were assassinated, including
President of the United States William McKinley. The justification of
Anarchist terrorism was that such acts would make anarchist ideas famous;
however, there were also many terrorists and criminals who called themselves
"anarchists" but had little in common with philosophical anarchists, who
often rejected any association with these individuals. This was also known
as "propaganda by the deed". Modern Anarchist terrorists would include
Revolutionary Cells, Germany and Direct Action, Canada. (Neither actually
called themselves Anarchists.) Often some Anarchists are found participating
with the more violent elements of demonstrations, such as the anti-globalism
protests in the 1990s and 2000s. This violence included both the broadest
definition of the word as the destruction of property and the more narrow
definition of the word as being beaten or teargassed by police. There are
significant sections of the Anarchist movement who do not support terrorism
or violence, including many organisations and individuals that advocate
pacifism.
Famous Terrorists and Former Terrorists
People widely held to be (or have been) terrorists include :
* Osama bin Laden
* Abu Nidal
* Menachem Begin
* Robin Hood
* Theodore Kaczynski
* Timothy McVeigh
* Ilich Ramirez Sanchez
* Yitzhak Shamir
* Abraham Stern
* Theodore Kaczynski aka the "Unabomber"
* Luke Helder aka the "Smiley Face" bomber
* The Tylenol Murderer
* John Allen Muhammad aka the "Beltway Sniper"
* The Weather Underground
* Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold Columbine High School slayers
People claimed by some to be terrorists: +
* Yasir Arafat
* Nelson Mandela
