Charles de Gaulle
General Charles-AndrŽ-Joseph-Marie de Gaulle (November 22, 1890 - November
9, 1970) was a French soldier and politician. He was the leader of the Free
French Forces in World War II and head of the provisional government in
1944-46. Called to form a government in 1958, he inspired a new
constitution1 and was the Fifth Republic's first president from 1958 to 1969.
1912-1940: Military career
Born in Lille, de Gaulle was the son of a teacher and was educated at the
ƒcole SpŽciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr. He graduated in 1912 and joined the
infantry. In World War I he was taken prisoner in March 1916 during the
Battle of Verdun.
When the war ended, he remained in the military, serving on the staff of
Gen. Maxime Weygand and then Gen. Philippe PŽtain.
Between the two World Wars, he published a number of books and articles on
the reorganisation of the army, particularly Vers l'ArmŽe de MŽtier
(published in English as "The Army of the Future") in which he supported the
new ideas of mechanised troops and specialised armoured divisions in
preference to the static theories exemplified by the Maginot Line.
While Heinz Guderian and the German Army General Staff were influenced by de
Gaulle, PŽtain rejected most of de Gaulle's theories, and the relationship
between them became strained. French politician also dismissed de Gaulle's
theories with the notable exception of Paul Reynaud who would later play a
major role in de Gaulle's career.
At the outbreak of World War II he was a colonel, by May 1940 he was a
brigadier general and in command of the 4th Armoured Division in Alsace.
On May 17, 1940 de Gaulle attacked the German tank forces at Montcornet.
With only 200 French tanks and no air support, the offensive had little
impact on stopping the German advance. There was more success on May 28,
when de Gaulle's tanks forced the German armour to retreat at Caumont. He
became the first and only French commanding officer to force the Germans to
retreat during the invasion of France.
On June 6, 1940 Paul Reynaud appointed him under-secretary of state for
national defence and war and put him in charge of coordination with the
United Kingdom. As a member of the cabinet he resisted proposals to
surrender. De Gaulle was in England when on June 16 PŽtain, now Marshal of
France, became premier with the intention of seeking an armistice with Germany.
De Gaulle decided to reject French capitulation and to set about building a
movement which would appeal to overseas French opponents of a separate
arrangement with Germany.
1940-1945: The Free French Forces
On June 18, de Gaulle prepared to speak to the French people, via BBC radio,
from London. The British Cabinet attempted to block the speech, but was
overruled by Churchill. In France, de Gaulle's "Appeal of June 18" could be
heard nationwide, at 7:00 p.m. To this day, it remains one of the most
famous speeches in French history.
From London, de Gaulle formed and led the Free French movement. Whereas the
USA continued to recognise Vichy France, the British government of Winston
Churchill supported de Gaulle, initially maintaining relations with Vichy
but subsequently recognising the Free French.
On July 4, 1940, a court-martial in Toulouse sentenced de Gaulle in absentia
to four years in prison. At a second court-martial on August 2, 1940, de
Gaulle was condemned to death for treason.
In his dealings with his British allies and the United States, de Gaulle
insisted at all times in retaining full freedom of action on behalf of
France, even where this might embarrass or inconvenience his partners in the
war: "France has no friends, only interests" is one of his best-remembered
statements, "Of all the crosses I have had to bear during this war, the
heaviest has been the Cross of Lorraine [de Gaulle's symbol of Free France]"
one of Churchill's.
Working with the French resistance and supporters in France's colonial
possessions in Africa, after the Anglo-American invasion of North Africa in
November 1942, de Gaulle moved his headquarters to Algiers in May 1943,
becoming first joint head (with the less resolutely independent Gen. Henri
Giraud, the candidate preferred by the United States) and then sole chairman
of the Committee of National Liberation.
At the liberation of France following Operation Overlord, he quickly
established the authority of the Free French Forces in France, avoiding a
Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories in France. On his return
to Paris, he moved back into his office at the War Ministry, thus
proclaiming continuity of the Third Republic and denying the legitimacy of
Vichy France.
After the war he served as the President of the provisional government from
September 1944 but resigned on January 20, 1946, complaining of conflict
between the political parties, and disapproving of the draft constitution
for the Fourth Republic which he believed placed too much power in the hands
of parliament with its shifting party alliances.
1946-1958: The desert crossing
De Gaulle's opposition to the proposed constitution failed as the parties of
the left supported a weak presidency to prevent any repetition of the Vichy
regime. The second draft constitution narrowly approved at the referendum of
October 1946 was even less to de Gaulle's liking than the first.
In April 1947 de Gaulle made a renewed attempt at transforming the political
scene with the creation of the Rassemblement du Peuple franais (Rally of
the French People, or RPF), but the movement lost impetus after initial
success. In May 1953 he withdrew again from active politics, though the RPF
lingered until September 1955.
He retired to Colombey-les-deux-ƒglises and wrote his war memoirs, MŽmoires
de guerre. During this period of formal retirement, de Gaulle however
maintained regular contact with past political lieutenants from wartime and
RPF days, including sympathisers involved in political developments in Algeria.
1958: The collapse of the Fourth Republic
The Fourth Republic was tainted by political instability, its failures in
Indochina and its inability to resolve the Algerian question.
On May 13, 1958, the settlers seized the government buildings in Algiers,
attacking what they saw as French government weakness in the face of demands
among the Arab majority for Algerian independence. A 'Committee of Civil and
Army Public Security' was created under the presidency of General Jacques
Massu, a Gaullist sympathiser. General Raoul Salan, Commander-in-Chief in
Algeria, announced on radio that the Army had 'provisionally taken over
responsibility for the destiny of French Algeria'.
Under the pressure of Massu, Salan declared "Vive de Gaulle!" from the
balcony of the Algiers Government-General building on May 15. De Gaulle
answered two days later that he was ready to "assume the powers of the
Republic" (assumer les pouvoirs de la RŽpublique). Many worried as they saw
this answer as support to the army.
On May 19 de Gaulle asserted again (at a press conference) that he was at
the disposition of the country. He declared that, "at sixty-seven, he had no
intention to begin a career as a dictator". A republican by conviction, de
Gaulle maintained throughout the crisis that he would accept power only from
the lawfully constituted authorities of the state.
The crisis deepened as French paratroops from Algeria seized Corsica and a
landing near Paris was discussed. Political leaders on all sides agreed to
support the General's return to power, except Franois Mitterrand, and the
Communist Party (which misguidedly denounced de Gaulle as the agent of a
fascist coup). On May 29 the French President, RenŽ Coty, appealed to the
"most illustrious of Frenchmen." to become the last Prime Minister of the
Fourth Republic.
De Gaulle remained intent on replacing the constitution of the Fourth
Republic, which he blamed for France's political weakness. He set as a
condition for his return to be given wide emergency powers for 6 months and
that a new constitution1 shall be proposed to the French people. On June 1,
1958 he Gaulle became premier and was given emergency powers for 6 months by
the National Assembly.
On September 28, 1958, a referendum took place and 79.2% of those who voted
supported the new constitution and the creation of the Fifth Republic. The
colonies (Algeria was officially a part of France, not a colony) were given
the choice between immediate independence and the new constitution. All
colonies voted for the new constitution except Guinea, which thus became the
first French African colony to gain independence, at the cost of the
immediate ending of all French assistance.
1958-1969 The Fifth Republic
In the November 1958 elections de Gaulle and his supporters (initially
organised in the Union pour la Nouvelle RŽpublique-Union DŽmocratique du
Travail, then the Union des DŽmocrates pour la Vme RŽpublique and later
still the Union des DŽmocrates pour la RŽpublique) won a comfortable
majority, in December de Gaulle was elected President with 78% of the vote,
he was inaugurated in January 1959.
He oversaw tough economic measures to revitalise the country, including the
issuing of a new Franc (worth 100 old Francs). Internationally he rebuffed
both the USA and the USSR, pushing for an independent France with its own
nuclear weapons. He set about building Franco-German coooperation as the
cornerstone of the EEC (now the European Union), and he took the opportunity
to deny the British entry for the first time (January 1963).
De Gaulle believed that while the war in Algeria was militarily winnable it
was not defensible internationally, and he became reconciled to the
country's independence. This stance created huge anger among the French
settlers and their metropolitan supporters, and de Gaulle was forced to
suppress two uprisings in Algeria by French settlers and troops, in the
second of which (April 1961) France herself faced threatened invasion by
rebel paratroops. He was also targetted by the settler OAS terrorist group.
In March 1962 de Gaulle arranged a cease-fire in Algeria and a referendum
supported independence, finally accomplished on July 3.
In September 1962 he sought a constitutional amendment to allow the
president to be directly elected by the people. Following a defeat in the
National Assembly, he dissolved that body and held new elections, the
Gaullists won an increased majority. Although the Algerian issue was settled
the prime minister, Michel DebrŽ, still resigned over the final settlement
and was replaced with Georges Pompidou.
In December1965 de Gaulle was returned as President for a second
seven-year term, but only after a second round of voting in which he
defeated Franois Mitterrand. Internationally de Gaulle continued to
pursue an independent policy, he again rejecting British entry into the
EEC (December 1967), condemning the US over Vietnam and the Israelis
over the Six Day War, and withdrawing France from the common NATO
military command (February 1966).
On an official State visit to Canada in July 1967 to celebrate that
country's 100 years of nationhood, President de Gaulle ignited a storm of
controversy in the anglophone world when he stood before a crowd of 100,000
Quebecers in Montreal and declared: Vive le QuŽbec libre! While this implied
support for QuŽbec's independence was a monumental diplomatic blunder and
interference into another country's private affairs, it was one that
inflamed the passion of some nationalist Quebecers and inspired members of
the emerging secession movement.
Following de Gaulle's remark, the Prime Minister of Canada, Lester B.
Pearson, cancelled plans for de Gaulle's visit to the capital of Ottawa, and
asked the French President to leave the country. Criticised at home in
France for the remarks, his opponents reminded the wartime general of the
thousands of Canadian soldiers (see: Vimy Ridge) buried in France who fought
and died for France's freedom in both World Wars. Critics also drew the
parallel for interference between Quebec independence and past Franco-German
contestation of ownership of Alsace-Lorraine.
The huge demonstrations and strikes in France in May 1968 were another
challenge, in the course of which de Gaulle briefly flew to meet Massu, now
French commander in Germany (to discuss army intervention against the
protesters, it has been alleged), while Pompidou sent tanks into the suburbs
of Paris as a precautionary measure.
But de Gaulle offered to accept some of the reforms the demonstrators
sought. He again considered a referendum to support his moves, but Pompidou
persuaded him to dissolve parliament (in which the government had all but
lost its majority in the March 1967 elections) and hold new elections
instead. The June 1968 elections were a major success for the Gaullists and
their allies: when offered the spectre of revolution or even civil war, the
majority of the country rallied to him. His party won 358 of 487 seats, but
Pompidou was suddenly replaced by Maurice Couve de Murville in July.
1969 The retirement
Charles de Gaulle resigned on April 28, 1969 following the defeat of his
proposals to transform the Senate into an advisory body while giving
extended powers to regional councils. The general retired once again to
Colombey-les-deux-ƒglises, where he died in 1970.
Retrospect
Though controversial throughout his political career, not least among
ideological opponents on the left and among overseas strategic partners, de
Gaulle continues to command enormous respect within France, where his
presidency is seen as a return to political stability and strength on the
international stage.
Domestically, for all its flaws, his regime presided over a return to
economic prosperity after an initially sluggish postwar performance, while
maintaining much of the social contract evolved in previous decades between
employers and labour. The associated dirigisme (state economic
interventionism) of the Fifth Republic's early decades remains at odds with
the trend of western economic orthodoxy, though French living standards
remain among the highest in Europe.
De Gaulle's presidential style of government was continued under his
successors. Internationally, the emphasis on French independence which so
characterised de Gaulle's policy remains a keynote of foreign policy,
together with his alignment with the former rival Germany, still seen in
both countries as a foundation for European integration.
Footnote
1 As he commissioned the new constitution and was responsible for its
overall framework, de Gaulle is sometimes described as the author of the
constitution. De Gaulle's political ideas were written into a constitutional
by Michel DebrŽ who then guided the text through the enactment process. Thus
while the constitution reflects de Gaulle's ideas, Michel DebrŽ was the
actual author of the text.
Works
French Editions
* La Discorde Chez l'Ennemi (1924)
* Histoire des Troupes du Levant (1931) Written by Major de Gaulle and
Major Yvon, with Staff Colonel de Mierry collaborating in the
preparation of the final text.
* Le Fil de l'EpŽe (1932)
* Vers l'ArmŽe de MŽtier (1934)
* La France et son ArmŽe (1938)
* Trois Etudes (1945) (R™le Historique des Places Fortes; Mobilisation
Economique ˆ l'Etranger; Comment Faire une ArmŽe de MŽtier) followed by
the Memorandum of January 26, 1940.
* MŽmoires de Guerre
o Volume I - L'Appel 1940-1942 (1954)
o Volume II - L'UnitŽ, 1942-1944 (1956)
o Volume III - Le Salut, 1944-1946 (1959)
* MŽmoires d'Espoir
o Volume I - Le Renouveau 1958-1962 (1970)
* Discours et Messages
o Volume I - Pendant la Guerre 1940-1946 (1970)
o Volume II - Dans l'attente 1946-1958 (1970)
o Volume III - Avec le Renouveau 1958-1962 (1970)
o Volume IV - Pour l'Effort 1962-1965 (1970)
o Volume V - Vers le Terme 1966-1969
English Translations
* The Edge of the Sword (Le Fil de l'EpŽe). Tr. by Gerard Hopkins. Faber,
London, 1960 Criterion Books, New York, 1960
* The Army of the Future. (Vers l'ArmŽe de MŽtier). Hutchinson,
London-Melbourne, 1940. Lippincott, New York, 1940
* France and Her Army. (La France et son ArmŽe). Tr. by F.L. Dash.
Hutchinson London, 1945. Ryerson Press, Toronto, 1945
* War Memoirs: Call to Honor, 1940-1942 (L'Appel). Tr. by Jonathan
Griffin. Collins, London, 1955 (2 volumes). Viking Press, New York,
1955.
* War Memoirs: Unity, 1942-1944. (L'UnitŽ). Tr. by Richard Howard
(narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents).
Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London, 1959 (2 volumes). Simon and Schuster,
New York, 1959 (2 volumes).
* War Memoirs: Salvation, 1944-1946. (Le Salut). Tr. by Richard Howard
(narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents).
Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London, 1960 (2 volumes). Simon and Schuster,
New York, 1960 (2 volumes).
